Friday, November 29, 2019

Summaries free essay sample

The physical remains of humanly made artifacts form the bulk of the archaeological record. The artifacts that are found by archaeologists may not represent the range of objects actually used because certain materials preserve better than others. For this reason, stone tools and ceramics dominate the archaeological record. Objects made of fabric, cord, skin, and other organic materials no doubt date back to the very earliest archaeological periods but they rarely survive. The introduction of pottery in a culture seems to coincide with the adoption of a sedentary way of life. Ethnography and ethnoarchaeology can shed light on questions concerning technology as many modern cultural groups make tools and pottery that are similar to those used in the past. Experimental archaeology also helps researchers understand how artifacts were made and what they were used for. Many archaeologists have become proficient in activities like stone tool manufacture for just this reason. Despite the indications offered by ethnography and experimental archaeology, only microwear studies can prove how a stone tool was used and what material it was used on. We will write a custom essay sample on Summaries or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Stone tools are often made by removing material from a core until a desired shape is obtained. The flakes removed from the core can also be used as tools in their own right. Long parallel-sided blades, however, dominate in some parts of the world. Because blades are removed from a core systematically a large number of tools can be produced while very little raw material is wasted. Copper was the most important metal used in early times. The alloying of copper to produce bronze represents a significant step forward in metallurgical practice: the resulting alloy is both stronger and less brittle than copper alone. There are a variety of different methods by which metal and metal artifacts can be produced or manufactured. Casting using the lost-wax method was an important development. The survival of organic materials depends on the matrix that surrounds them and the climate they were deposited in. The acidic soils of tropical climates are the most destructive to organic materials, while dry, desert environments and extremely cold or waterlogged environments are most likely to preserve them. KEY CONCEPT IDENTIFICATIONS Are They Artifacts at All? Eoliths, p. 308 ,Bulb of percussion, p. 308 Extraction: Mines and Quarries Mines, p. 311 Quarries, p. 311 Stone Tool Manufacture Core, p. 315, Retouching, p. 315, Levallois technique, p. 315, Oldowan industry, p. 315, Knapping, p. 317 Refitting, p. 319 Identifying the Function of Stone Tools: Microwear Studies Microwear analysis, p. 319 Other Unaltered Materials Bone, antler, shell, and leather, p. 324 Wood, p. 327 Watercraft, p. 328; 330 Textiles, pp. 330-332 Fiber microwear analysis, p. 332 Synthetic Materials Pyrotechnology, p. 332 Pottery, p. 334 Temper, p. 334 Kilns, pp. 334-335 Faience, p. 335 Glass, p. 336 Archaeometallurgy Non-Ferrous Metals, p. 337 Alloying, pp. 337-338 Metallographic examination, p. 338 Casting, pp. 339-340 Lost-wax technique, pp. 339-340 Slag, p. 342 Platinum, p. 343 Copper Production in Ancient Peru Tuyeres, pp. 340-341 Fine Metalwork Filigree, p. 343 Plating, p. 344 Iron and Steel Iron smelting, p. 344 Steelmaking, p. 345 CHAPTER 9 What Contact Did They Have? Trade And Exchange Summary Trade and exchange systems can be reconstructed if the materials in question are distinctive enough for their source to be identified. When an artifact found in one location is determined to have its origin in another location, contact between the two locations has occurred. Through characterization, artifacts are examined for the characteristic properties of the material from which they are made, thus allowing the source of that material to be determined. For this to work, there must be something about the source of the material that distinguishes it from other sources. The observation of stone objects in thin section, for example, allows the researcher to identify the source of the stone based on its mineral components. The trace elements of an object, which are found in very small quantities, can be used to characterize an object. Neutron activation analysis, for example, can source a piece of obsidian to a particular volcano and, sometimes, even a particular eruption of that volcano. When written records exist they offer a wealth of information about the distribution of goods. Trade goods are often marked by their producer in some way (such as with a clay sealing or even a written name) and from this information a distribution map can be created based on where the goods of a particular producer have been found. Distribution maps aid in the spatial analysis of sites or artifacts. Another way to visualize distribution is through fall-off analysis, where quantities of material found are plotted against the distance of their find spot from the materials source. Greater understanding of trade networks comes from studies of production in areas such as mines and quarries, and the study of consumption of goods. Societies that had contact with each other through trade of material goods also exchanged ideas and other information. This most likely had a direct role in the spread of technology, language, and culture. KEY CONCEPT IDENTIFICATIONS The Study of Interaction Exchange, p. 347 Scale and World System World system, p. 348 Internal exchange, p. 348 External exchange, p. 348 Gift Exchange and Reciprocity Kula, p. 350 Modes of Exchange Reciprocity, p. 351 Redistribution, p. 351 Market exchange, p. 351 Materials of Prestige Value Intrinsic value, p. 352 Valuables and Commodities Primitive valuables, p. 354 Sphere of exchange, p. 354 Discovering the Sources of Traded Goods Characterization, p. 355 Analytical Methods Thin-section analysis, p. 355 Trace-element analysis, pp. 355-356 Isotopic analysis, pp. 360-361 Analyzing Artifact Composition Atomic absorption spectrometry, p. 358 X-ray florescence analysis, p. 358 Neutron activation analysis, p. 359 The Study of Distribution Direct access, p. 362 Obsidian, p. 366 Trend surface analysis, p. 368 Fall-off analysis, p. 369 Distribution, pp. 370-371 The Study of Production Production, p. 372 The Study of Consumption Consumption, p. 373; 374 Exchange and Interaction: The Complete System Interaction spheres, p. 378; 379 Competition, p. 378 Peer-polities, p. 378 CHAPTER 10 What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, And Religion Summary Cognitive archaeology is the study of past ways of thought through material remains. Humans are distinguished from other life forms by their use of symbols; all intelligent speech and thought are based on these symbols. The meaning ascribed to a symbol is specific to a particular cultural tradition and depictions as well as material objects do not directly disclose their meaning to archaeologists. The origins of self-consciousness and the development of a cognitive map are hotly debated but there is little archaeological evidence to clarify the matter. Tool manufacturing and the deliberate burial of the dead are two of many ways we may investigate the cognitive behaviour of early humans. The act of burial itself implies feelings for the dead. Archaeologists recognize that grave-goods in a burial are chosen to give a representation of the identity of the deceased. The existence of writing implies a major extension of the cognitive map as written symbols are the most effective way that humans can describe the world around them and communicate with others. Material symbols are put to a variety of uses. They can establish place by marking territory, organize the natural world into units of time and distance, serve as instruments of planning, regulate relations between people through use of material constructs such as money, bring people closer to the supernatural or transcendent, and even describe the world itself through artistic representation. All of these material symbols can be seen in various ways in the archaeological record. New developments in areas such as the study of early musical behaviour and cognitive science indicate fresh pathways for cognitive archaeology. KEY CONCEPT IDENTIFICATIONS Introduction Cognitive archaeology, p. 381 Theory and Method Cognitive map, p. 382 Investigating how Human Symbolizing Faculties Evolved Language development, p. 383 The food-sharing hypothesis, p. 384 Deliberate burial of human remains, p. 385 Representations, p. 385; 389 Paleolithic Art Parietal art, pp. 386-387 Mobiliary art, pp. 386-387 Working with Symbols The basic use of symbols, pp. 389-390 From Written Source to Cognitive Map Literacy restriction, p. 390 Greek literacy, p. 392 Establishing the Place Domus, p. 393 Landscape archaeology, p. 393 Measuring the World Units of time, p. 396 Units of length, p. 396 Units of weight, pp. 396-397 Symbols of Organization and Power Money, p. 400 Intrinsic value, p. 401 Symbols for the Otherworld: The Archaeology of Religion Archaeology of cult, p. 403 Focusing of attention, p. 404 Identifying the Supernatural Powers Iconography, p. 415 Depiction: Art and Representation Fertility goddess, p. 410 Symmetry analysis, p. 411 Individual artists, pp. 412-413 Mythic thought, p. 412 Aesthetics, p. 416 Music and Cognition Defining music, p. 416 Mind and Material Engagement Embodied cognition, p. 418 Cognition and Neuroscience The learning process, p. 419 CHAPTER 11 Who Were They? What Were They Like? The Bioarchaeology Of People Summary The physical remains of past peoples provide direct evidence about their lives. Bioarchaeology is the study of human remains from archaeological sites. Though whole human bodies can be preserved in a variety of ways, including mummification and freezing, the vast majority of human remains recovered by archaeologists are in the form of skeletons and bone fragments. An important part of the analysis of human remains is the identification of physical attributes. The sex of skeletal remains, for example, can be determined through observing the shape of the pelvis as well as other bones. Teeth can help establish an individuals relative age at death, namely whether they were young, adult or old. It is even possible to reconstruct what an individual looked like through careful analysis of skull features. When intact bodies such as mummies are found, the precise cause of death can sometimes be deduced. For skeletal remains, the cause of death can only rarely be determined as most afflictions leave no trace on bone. Only the effects of violence, accident, congenital deformity, and a handful of diseases can be seen on bones. Evidence for early medicine is found through both written and physical sources. Those cultures that developed writing recorded a number of maladies and their respective cures. Physically, archaeological remains can, at times, show the marks of surgery. Surgical equipment has been recovered from contexts all over the world. Demographic archaeology utilizes archaeological information to make estimates about the size, density, and growth rate of populations. This can be done through analysis of settlement data as well as the richness of a particular environment in terms of its animal and plant resources. Much of the best evidence for early population movements comes from the analysis of modern genetic material. The genetic analysis of living populations can only tell us about past cultures that have living descendants. KEY CONCEPT IDENTIFICATIONS Introduction Bioarchaeology, p. 421 Identifying Physical Attributes Determining sex, p. 423 Determining lifespan, p. 425 Epiphyses, p. 425 Osteons, p. 427 Height, p. 427 Weight, p. 428 Facial reconstruction, pp. 428-429 How Were They Related? Blood groups, p. 431 DNA analysis, p. 431; 433 Assessing Human Abilities Walking, pp. 433-435 Handedness, pp. 435-436 Speech, pp. 436-438 Brain endocasts, p. 436 Sexual behavior, p. 440 Cannibalism, p. 440; pp. 438-439 Disease, Deformity, and Death Forensic archaeology, p. 441 Bacteria and parasites, p. 44 Evidence of violence, p. 445 Harris lines, p. 447 Lead poisoning, p. 448 Early medicine, p. 449 Examining Bodies Computed axial tomography, pp. 442-443 Magnetic Resonance Imaging, pp. 442-443 Assessing Nutrition Malnutrition, p. 453 The rise of agriculture, p. 454 Population Studies Demographic archaeology, p. 454 Paleodemography, p. 454 Diversity and Evolution Mitochondrial Eve, p. 457 Ancient genomics, p. 459 Genetics and Language Histories Macrofamilies, pp. 458-459 CHAPTER 12 Why Did Things Change? Explanation In Archaeology Summary A difficult but important task of archaeology is to answer the question why and indeed much of archaeology has focused on the investigation of why things change. Before the 1960s changes in material and social culture were explained by migration and cultural diffusion. The processual approach of New Archaeology, which began to take hold in the 1960s, attempted to isolate the different processes at work within a society. Rather than placing an emphasis on movements of people as the primary cause of change and development, early processual archaeologists looked more to humanitys relationship with its environment, on subsistence and economy, and the other processes at work within a society to explain why a society was how it was. Processual archaeology often addresses big questions such as the rise of agriculture and the origins of the state. In general, multivariate (several factor) explanations are better than monocausal (single factor) ones. Marxist archaeology, focusing on the effects of class struggle within a society, does not contradict the ideas of processual archaeology, and nor does evolutionary archaeology, which is centered on the idea that the processes responsible for biological evolution also drive culture change. As a reaction to the functionalist approach of early processual archaeology, so-called postprocessual approaches developed in the 1980s and 1990s, emphasizing the subjectivity of archaeological interpretations and drawing on structuralist thinking and neo-Marxist analysis. New cognitive-processual approaches in the 1990s sought to overcome some of the limitations of early processual archaeology. A greater emphasis is placed on the concepts and beliefs of past societies, and the difficulty of testing hypotheses concerning culture change is recognized. One aim of contemporary archaeology is to keep track of the individual in explaining change. Agency, defined as the short-term intentionality of an individual, may indeed have long-term and unforeseen consequences that lead to cultural change. Another aim is to recognize the active role of material culture in the way humans engage with the world. KEY CONCEPT IDENTIFICATIONS Migrationist and Diffusionist Explanations Diffusion, p. 464 The Processual Approach Processual (New) archaeology, p. 467 Applications Functional-processual approach, p. 471 Cognitive-processual approach, p. 471 Marxist Archaeology: Key Features Marxist archaeology, p. 471 Evolutionary Archaeology Human behavioral ecology, p. 473 Richard Dawkins, p. 473 The Form of Explanation: General or Particular Idealism, p. 475 Natural laws, p. 476 Deductive-nomothetic explanation, p. 476 Historiographic, p. 476 Scientistic, p. 476 Hypothetico-deductive explanation, p. 476 The Individual Identity, p. 476 Monocausal Explanations: Monocausal explanation, p. 477 Hydraulic hypothesis, p. 477 Environmental circumscription, p. 478 Multivariate Explanations Multivariate explanation, p. 480 Systems approach, p. 480 Negative feedback, p. 480 Homeostasis, p. 480 Simulation Simulation, p. 481 Model, p. 481 Postprocessual or Interpretive Explanation Structuralist approaches, p. 485 Critical Theory, p. 485 Relativism, p. 485 Neo-Marxism, p. 488 Cognitive Archaeology Cognitive-processual archaeology, p. 488 Agency and Material Engagement Agency, p. 490 CHAPTER 13 Archaeology In Action: Five Case Studies Summary Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice is primarily about how we know what we know, and how we find out — in philosophical terms, about the epistemology of archaeology. To complete the picture, it is important to see something of archaeology in action: to consider a few real field projects where the questions and methods have come together and produced, with the aid of the relevant specialisms, some genuine advance in our knowledge. The questions we ask are themselves dependent on what, and how much, we already know. Sometimes the archae ­ologist starts work in archaeologically virgin territory – where little or no previous research has been undertaken – as for instance when the Southeast Asian specialist Charles Higham began his fieldwork in Thailand (see our fourth case study, KhokPhanom Di: the Origins of Rice Farming in Southeast Asia). In the Valley of Oaxaca in Mexico, on the other hand – our first case study – when Kent Flannery and his colleagues began work more than four decades ago, little was understood of the evolution in Mesoamerica of what we would call complex society, although the great achievements of the Olmec and the Maya were already well known. The work of the Flannery team has involved continual formulation of new models. It represents an excellent example of the truism that new facts (data) lead to new questions (and new theories), and these in turn to the discovery of new facts. The second study, devoted to Floridas Calusa Project, investigates the apparent paradox of a sedentary, complex, and powerful society that was almost entirely based on hunting, fishing, and gathering. Until the 1980s, nearly everything known about the Calusa came from Spanish ethnohistorical accounts, but archaeology is transforming and expanding our knowledge of many aspects of this prehistoric culture. Our third case study follows the research project of Val Attenbrow and her associates in Upper Mangrove Creek, southeastern Australia. Here archaeologists have attempted to study the traces left by small groups of highly mobile hunter-gatherers, and to establish their technological responses to environmental changes over time. The transformation in our knowledge of prehistoric Australia and Southeast Asia over the course of the last 50 years has been one of the most exciting developments to have taken place in modern archaeology. The Upper Mangrove Creek and KhokPhanom Di projects, with their close integration of both environmental and archaeological studies, have played an important part in that transformation. Our fifth case study focuses on the work of the York Archaeological Trust in the northern English city of York. This is a project of a very different kind: working under all the constraints of archaeology in a modern urban setting, the York unit has set out to present its findings to the public in a novel and effective way, and JORVIK, their visitor center, has for the past 25 years led the way in this aspect of public archaeology. CHAPTER 14 Whose Past? Archaeology And The Public The past has different meanings for different people, and often personal identity is defined by the past. Increasingly archaeology is playing a role in the definition of national identity where the past is used to legitimize the present by reinforcing a sense of national greatness. Ethnicity, which is just as strong a force today as in earlier times, relies upon the past for legitimization as well, sometimes with destructive consequences. Ethics is the science of what is right and wrong, or morality, and most branches of archaeology are seen to have an ethical dimension. Until recent decades archaeologists gave little thought to such questions as who owns the past? Now every archaeological decision should take ethical concerns into account. We cannot simply dismiss the alternative theories of fringe archaeology as farcical, because they have been so widely believed. Anyone who has read this book, and who understands how archaeology proceeds, will already see why such writings are a delusion. The real antidote is a kind of healthy skepticism: to ask where is the evidence? Knowledge advances by asking questions that is the central theme of this book, and there is no better way to disperse the lunatic fringe than by asking difficult questions, and looking skeptically at the answers. The archaeology of every land has its own contribution to make to the understanding of human diversity and hence of the human condition. Although earlier scholars behaved with flagrant disregard for the feelings and beliefs of native peoples, interest in these matters today is not an attempt further to appropriate the native past. Perhaps the saddest type of archaeological destruction comes from the looting of sites. Through this act, all information is destroyed in the search for highly salable artifacts. Museums and collectors bear some of the responsibility for this. Museums are also under increasing pressure to return antiquities to their lands of origin. Police now consider the theft and smuggling of art and antiquities to be second in scale only to the drug trade in the world of international crime. KEY CONCEPT IDENTIFICATIONS Archaeology and Identity Identity, p. 536 Archaeological Ethics Ethics, p. 538 Popular Archaeology versus Pseudoarchaeology Pseudoarchaeology, p. 538, Other archaeologies, p. 538, Piltdown Man, pp. 538-539, Atlantis, p. 539 Archaeological fraud, p. 540 Who Owns the Past? The Elgin Marbles, p. 541, Repatriation, p. 543, NAGPRA, p. 543, Kennewick Man, p. 543 The Responsibility of Collectors and Museums Illegal antiquities, p. 544, Looters, p. 544 CHAPTER 15 The Future Of The Past: How To Manage The Heritage? Summary Many nations believe that it is the duty of the government to have policies with regard to conservation, and these conservation laws often apply to archaeology. Construction, agricultural intensification, conflict, tourism, and looting are all human activities that damage or destroy sites. Built on a strong legal foundation, Cultural Resource Management (CRM) or applied archaeology plays a major role in American archaeology. When a project is on federal land, uses federal money, or needs a federal permit, the law requires that cultural resources are identified, evaluated, and if they cannot be avoided, addressed accordingly in an approved mitigation plan. A large number of private contract archaeology firms employ the majority of archaeologists in the US. These firms are responsible for meeting mitigation requirements, overseen by a lead agency and an SHPO. Publication of final reports is required, but the variable quality and usually limited dissemination of these reports remain a problem. Archaeologists have a duty to report what they find. Since excavation is, to a certain extent, destructive, published material is often the only record of what was found at a site. Perhaps up to 60 percent of modern excavations remain unpublished after 10 years. The Internet and the popular media can help to fulfill one of the fundamental purposes of archaeology: to provide the public with a better understanding of the past. Besides nationalistic or religious views in the interpretation and presentation of the past, we have to be aware of gender-bias in the often still male-dominated world of archaeology. Museums are increasingly seen as theaters of memory in which local and national identities are defined. Another source of bias is the ubiquity of the use of the English language in archaeological discourse, and the dominance of one ethnic group or class over another in different parts of the world. Prehistoric archaeology, with its emphasis on material, non-verbal culture, is well placed to overcome these difficulties. KEY CONCEPT IDENTIFICATIONS The Response: Survey, Conservation, and Mitigation Survey, p. 552, Environmental assessment, p. 552, American Antiquities Act, p. 552, CRM, p. 553 Conservation, pp. 552-553, Mitigation, pp. 552-553, SHPO, p. 556, Portable Antiquities Scheme, p. 558 UNESCO, p. 559, The World Heritage List, p. 559, The 1954 Hague Convention, p. 559 Heritage Management, Display, and Tourism Heritage, p. 562 English Heritage, p. 562 Who Interprets and Presents the Past? Public presentation, p. 563 Museum studies, p. 564 The Past for All People and All Peoples Scientific colonialism, p. 565 CHAPTER 16 The New Searchers: Building A Career In Archaeology Many readers of the preceding editions of Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice have wondered how one can set about developing a career in archaeology – which may be in the field of archaeological research (whether in a university or as an independent researcher), or it may be in a more administrative capacity as a government employee, or in the business of heritage tourism. So we have invited five professionals, all earning their living by doing archaeology, to tell their own story. Each is actively engaged in research, in the creation of new knowledge: in that sense they are the new searchers, the counterparts and successors of the pioneer searchers discussed in Chapter 1. They are not a random sample; different invitations might have produced different responses. But they are all part of that now vast international enterprise involved in investigating, reconstructing, and disseminating knowledge of the human past. They are all established archaeologists but at different stages in their careers. Their backgrounds are also different. Yet most of them have something in common: they came to archaeology fortuitously, by chance, as it were. This is hardly surprising, since the practice of archaeology is not a major profession like medicine or the law or retail selling. But each of them, by some means, caught the bug. That bug, the back-looking curiosity as Glyn Daniel once called it, that fascination with the human past is what drives them: each expresses it in their own way. The joy they express (The most rewarding thing I have ever discovered) is not simply discovering and uncovering objects that have lain hidden for thousands of years. It is the pleasure of making sense of the data, making sense of the past. The archaeologist of today, as of yesterday, is a person of wide horizons, with knowledge of the human past, and with a concern for the human future.

Monday, November 25, 2019

Centre for Enegry, Petroleum, Mineral Law and Policy The WritePass Journal

Centre for Enegry, Petroleum, Mineral Law and Policy ABSTRACT: Centre for Enegry, Petroleum, Mineral Law and Policy ABSTRACT: 1. INTRODUCTION2. HUMAN RIGHTS AND CSR2.1. HUMAN RIGHTS WHICH ARE PARAMOUNT IN EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES2.2.   THE ROLE OF NGOs2.3. THE ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT3. ENVIROMENTAL IMPACT OF EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES3.1. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN AND ENVIROMENTAL RIGHTS3.2. WHO ARE THE MAJOR STAKEHOLDERS 3.3. PARTICULAR IMPACT ON IPs4. CSR MEASURES4.1. RESPONSIBILITY OF CORPORATE DIRECTOR4.2. CORPORATE ACCOUNTABILITY  BIBLIOGRAPHYRelated ABSTRACT: The concept of human rights have been if not generally but to some degree understood. How it is important for every man to have his own dignity and freedom to move however not everyone understands how closely related environmental right and human rights are related a health environment gives way to a right to live a healthy life which is one of the first and basic human right â€Å"right to life†. TNCs are due to the nature of their projects closely related to human right issues as well as environmental issues the in most cases constitute the highest number of human rights abuses by their very presence in a community. If the handle the human rights and environmental rights issue adequately then a lot of bloodshed and pollution can be avoided but if not then a lot of harm than good may be the order of the day. This is where CSR comes in the CSR norms help TNCs to avoid disasters from occurring. But the question is, is the CSR norms enough, the companies will have to incorporate them into their policies and not just that but to also develop a strong report system that would help the company filter any form of abuse. Complicity by the company in the face of human rights abuse is also too good. This paper would highlight on cases of abuse and how it affects the local people and how the TNCs can help avoid both human and environmental abuse and NGOs fit in in all of these. 1. INTRODUCTION Human rights are fundamental principles which give any individual the right to freedom of a dignified life, freedom from fear and the freedom to express his/her beliefs.The TNCs should be careful with the effects of mining and exploration activities on the human rights of employees and surrounding communities because obtaining a strong social licence to operate in those communities depends on how much the TNCs respect the human rights of the local people. Integrating human rights rules into core business practice in the mining sector is important, it is a corporate responsibility.   While the basic need to protect and promote human rights is the immediate responsibility of the national governments, TNCs also has a distinct responsibility to respect human rights as well. Some International Companies especially those who are signed under the UN Global Compact, including mining and resource companies refer to human rights in their annual event reports and incorporate and implement hum an rights into their regulations and policies.Chapter two of this research looks at the human rights abuses that are commonly found in extractive industries. Chapter three looks at the environmental impacts of extractive industries and how it affects IPs. Chapter four looks at the CSR measures and how companies and directors are held accountable for their actions and the final chapter concludes and gives recommendations on how CSR can be promoted. 2. HUMAN RIGHTS AND CSR As provided in the OECD Guidelines for TNCs, extractive industries have to respect the human rights of those affected by their activities and practices consistent with both international and national laws of the host government. They also have to contribute to the economic, social and environmental development of the host government with a view to achieving sustainable development. 2.1. HUMAN RIGHTS WHICH ARE PARAMOUNT IN EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES There are distinct human right issues peculiar to extractive industries which concerns all TNC companies. The following are some of the more reoccurring cases of human right abuse: Labour practices with respect to human rights Extractive companies, have a responsibility and duty to make sure that employees enjoy basic labour rights such as, a safe workplace, reasonable living wage, non-discriminatory against sex, HIV and so on collective bargaining and child-labour. Environmental issues with respect to human rights Environmental activities of extractive companies have the tendency to affect a variety of basic rights including the rights to life, good health and an adequate standard of living; which includes access to basic food, clothing, water, housing and sanitation. Governments should also ensure that both multinational and national enterprises provide sufficient safety and health standards for their employees. The government has a duty to ensure the welfare of its citizens. Rights of Indigenous peoples and other community Extractive industries need land or the rights to use it. In most cases, land is already in use by others (IPs), and other times it is part of a community’s ethnic or traditional resources. In most cases land involves the resettlement of communities. Failure to address resettlement, native title and customary land use issues or forced eviction of the IPs, will cause animosity and conflict towards a project. Security issues with respect to human rights Extractive companies often find themselves in conflict-prone countries. This often means that an industry will employ its own security, or rely on law enforcement of the host government to protect assets and employees. In most unfortunate cases they company’s security become involved in local violence. A mining company could be complicit in human rights abuses committed by a security provider. 2.2.   THE ROLE OF NGOs Within the NGO world, there are many different methods or techniques of dealing with TNCs: some try to draw corporations into dialogue or conference sessions where TNCs can express their views, more like a communication link, in order to persuade and convince them to accept voluntary codes of conduct, while others believe that corporations will take action only when their financial interests are ‘on the line’, and therefore take a more adverse stance toward them. The latter view is more in line with labour union strategies and approaches. Confrontational NGOs tend to employ moral stigmatization, or â€Å"naming and shaming,† as their primary tactic, while NGOs that favor engagement offer or propose dialogue and a limited form of cooperation with willing TNCs. There are different reasons why NGOs’ are interest in the business sector, however the most common and the most important reason is the perception or belief that political and economic power has shifted away from governments and toward TNCs. The traditional roles NGOs normal play in cases of human right abuses is to gather information, analysis and dissemination of human rights concerns, the help in advocating for better HRs observance and accountability. The also develop and lobby for human rights laws and standards. They give legal aid and humanitarian relief to victims of human right abuses. They punish TNCs by moral shaming and praise. NGOs promote CSR by research, reporting and media exposure, by dialogue with TNCs, by holding TNCs socially responsible and accountable for their actions. â€Å"In the 1 9 8 0s the corporate social responsibility (CSR) agenda was significantly broadened when, in the wake of Bhopal, Exxon Valdez, and other highly publicized environmental disasters, the NGO environmental movement pressed home the idea that TNCs must also protect the environment, thus further expanding the notion that corporations have social responsibilities. From the early 1990s on, human rights NGOs and other voices within civil society have been calling upon corporations to accept responsibility for promoting labor rights, human rights, environmental quality, and sustainable development. The contemporary CSR movement aims to persuade MNCs to adopt voluntary codes of conduct and implement business practices that incorporate commitments to respect and protect labor rights and human rights as well as the environment. The voluntary CSR approach is not the only NGO strategy. Another influential school of thought within the NGO world views MNCs as constitutionally unredeemable and incapable of voluntarily acting in a socially responsible fashion; companies can only be made to be socially and environmentally accountable by means of economic coercion or through binding legal obligations. Those who take this view look toward the development of a mass social movement that will compel governments to enact enforceable international legal standards that will make TNCs legally accountable to global society. Private voluntary CSR initiatives are viewed as exercises in corporate public relations and as poor substitutes for strict legal regulation. Of ten allied philosophically and strategically with unions, NGO activists who take this view m ay seek to support traditional union organizing efforts to win rights and fair compensation for workers worldwide through collective bargaining agreements with free labou r unions.† 2.3. THE ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT It is the responsibility of the government to protect as well as ensure that the rights of the members of the community are not abused. Recommendations for measures to be taken by the government to avoid further human rights violations in mining communities: 1. Ensure that IPs that get their livelihood from the land receive adequate compensation and access to alternative land for farming and if possible fishing according to Section 74 of the Minerals and Mining Act of 2006; for example the Ghanaian government ensures that the support the Regulation on Compensation for IPs according to the Act as provided as a matter of urgency. 2. Establish and strengthen the mandate and the capacity of a Governmental Environmental body so that it can effectively prevent the contamination and destruction of water sources. 3. Enable and establish laws and courts for the Human Rights cases national and locally to play a decisive role in investigating alleged human rights violations in mining communities, in revising legislation and to educate the people of their human rights 4. to look into cases of alleged human rights violations committed by military and police in this context 5. Ensure that local police is able and trained to act independent of the interests of multinational mining companies. 3. ENVIROMENTAL IMPACT OF EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES Corporate environmental and social responsibility has been seen in recent times to overlap each other. It is a known fact that some business activities have negative environmental implications. Mining, oil drilling, chemical production and waste disposal projects all have possibilities of disrupting or harm ecosystems and the environment, such activities and practices may also compromise the rights of people who are affected. Certain groups may be geographically more vulnerable to environmental pollution because of their way of life, the nature of their economy and socio-economic status. Although international human rights laws contain few clean-cut provisions relating to the environment rights, many fundamental human rights – to life, to health, to privacy, non-discrimination and self-determination, for example – can have significant environmental dimensions. â€Å"In 1972, an international meeting formulated, for the first time, the issue of environmental protection specifically in terms of a â€Å"right to environment† commencing the process of explicitly linking environmental law with human rights. Since then, there has been an increasing recognition international, that â€Å"human rights, an economically sound environment, sustainable development and peace are interdependent and indivisible.† In April 2001, the UN Commission on Human Rights, for the first time concluded that everyone has the right to live in a world free from toxic pollution and environmental degradation†. 3.1. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN AND ENVIROMENTAL RIGHTS The right to a safe environment has been emphasized as a vital component of fundamental human rights. In most cases, environmental deterioration leads to human rights iniquities and quite often, human rights abuse involves serious ecological interruptions. In the United States, for example, the transformation and fusion of civil rights and environmental justice movements have been especially instrumental in dealing with the problems of inequitable distribution of environmental pollution and associated health effects caused by the activities of powerful corporations and the host government. Strong environmental movements and effective legislative responses to hazardous waste disposal have drastically increased the costs of hazardous waste management, making exporting of industrial wastes quite attractive. Toxic waste dumping represents one of several activities that involve serious human rights abuse, ecological disruptions, and environmental injustice. Other activities such as natural resource exploitation by the state and Multinational Corporations (MNCs), land acquisition, and large-scale economic development projects are also involved with human rights abuse. Over the past years, the world has witnessed a high number of cases which had involved and is still involving ecological and human rights abuses ranging from the military government extermination of indigenous population in Irian Jaya, Indonesia, to ecological assaults and human rights violations in Africa and other developing countries and the all suggest the need to include environmental rights as a significant component of human rights issues. Most recently, increased global awareness of environmental and human rights problems has broadened the civil, political, and socioeconomic rights to encompass environmental dimension. 3.2. WHO ARE THE MAJOR STAKEHOLDERS There are several stakeholders in the CSR effort. These include: government, mining Companies, institutions especially the UNO and its agencies like ILO, the local community, consumers of mineral products, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) suppliers, managers, under-represented stakeholders; The State (Government): Many mineral-rich developing countries generate enormous revenues from mining. Unfortunately, many of them do not have in place, policies that can ensure effective management of such revenues for the well-being of their citizens. The state has a very important role to play in ensuring responsible behaviour by all the other stakeholders, especially the MNCs that operate within their jurisdiction. Indeed, some analysts are of the opinion that governments are the only stakeholders that can have the most impact in creating incentives and disincentives for responsible action. The government can use both regulatory and economic instruments to enhance CSR in the operations of MNCs. The Mining Companies Suffice to emphasise that private investment in mining, as in other commercial undertakings is for the purpose of making profit. In this regard, it is necessary to appreciate the limits of what MNCs can do and what the government can ask them to do. This legitimate aspiration, however, should be without prejudice to the fact that MNCs should pay attention to their conduct as it affects other stakeholders especially with regards to upholding human rights norms. Investors Investors can be warned or informed of potential environmental risks and liabilities and to the benefits for them, from good practice in mining. Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) Increased national and international NGO activity and assistance have improved people’s awareness of their rights, bringing with such awareness a greater articulation of their demands and grievances. Their cases have also been brought forward to the international forum thereby bringing pressure to bear on both states and mining companies for a rectification of some of the worst practices. The role of some NGOs lack transparency and accountability. Development Assistance Agencies/multinational institutions Development assistance institutions such as the World Bank are increasingly coming under pressure to implement environmental and human rights standards within their lending and assistance programmes. There is, however, a lot more to do in the area of implementation of human as well as environmental rights initiatives. The World Trade Organisation with its strong judicial system can go a long way in helping to incorporate human and environmental rights in TNCs policies, simply by demanding for it before have any form of dealings with the said company or host government. Others may include the UN Global contact and ILO. 3.3. PARTICULAR IMPACT ON IPs Some of the recent cases of environmental injustice and human rights violations are: the murder of Francisco Mendes and Wilson Pinheiro in the Amazon rain forest, the public hanging of Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight other members of the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) in Nigeria and the massacre of Father Nery Lito Satur and several others in the Philippines,. There have been several other cases of government agents especially in other developing countries, where the host government does nothing to stop human right abuse against members of minority groups and local communities so as   to take over their lands and natural resources. The oppression of indigenous minority groups extends to ecological and environmental degradation. Exploitation and pollution of natural resources, including energy production, timber harvesting, mineral extraction, oil exploration and other industrial projects by MNCs, has caused significant damages. These damages include dislocation and displacement of numerous indigenous and local communities and their entire ways of life. In many developing countries, indigenous peoples, minority groups and other vulnerable and impoverished communities, including subsistence peasants, fishing communities and hunters in some cases traders are generally the victims of environmental pollution mostly caused by resource extractive operations of MNCs in the name of global development. â€Å"Over the past years, there have been about documented cases of hazardous wastes dumping in Eastern Europe, in Asia, in Latin America, and in Africa. Specific cases include dioxin-laden industrial wastes exported from Philadelphia to Guinea and Haiti in 1987; radioactive milk exported to Jamaica by EC in 1978; and other toxic elements exported by Italian firms to the town of Koko in Nigeria; and several other similar cases involving a systematic dumping of hazardous wastes to these regions. Within the past decade, several Third World nations including Argentina, Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, Guinea, Haiti, Lebanon, Mexico, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Syria, Venezuela, and Zimbabwe have been targeted for toxic waste dumping. Increased toxic waste dumping and CO2 emissions are directly related to poor quality of life and adverse health conditions in these countries†. 4. CSR MEASURES CSR measures vary depending on varying factors and geographical location of the TNC. The Australian Parliamentary Joint Committee on Corporations and Financial Services in 2006 in its report: Corporate Responsibility: Managing Risk and Creating Value, stated: That the committee strongly supports further successful involvement in the voluntary CSR measures and wide adoption of corporate responsibility. The committee has formed the view that obligatory methods to regulating director’s actions and to sustainability reporting are not suitable. However some people argue that the government should be   more in CSR related issues. They argue that the host government needs both to improve civil and market regulation of corporations, and also to strengthen corporate law. They agree that the threat of litigation against TNCs is more effective. â€Å"Kolk and van Tulder (2002) critically examine the effectiveness of voluntary corporate codes of conduct by a study of child labour codes developed by six international garment companies. Overall, the research shows that corporate codes are important, though not the only, instruments for addressing child labour. Sandra Polaski reports on an innovative policy experiment in Cambodia that links improvement of workers’ rights with increased orders and market access for the products of the country’s garment factories. The policy originated with the US-Cambodia Textile Agreement, which awarded Cambodia higher garment export quotas into the US market in return for improved working conditions and labor regulations. She concludes that the agreement’s effectiveness has depended on a regulatory role for the ILO, ‘acting as a compliance monitor and government intervention, preventing some apparel producers from free riding on others’†. 4.1. RESPONSIBILITY OF CORPORATE DIRECTOR While some people are of the view that the sole responsibility of the directors are to the shareholders and other financial issues as has been stated in common law others are of the view that directors have the duty to incorporate human rights into the company policies and rules, inform the stakeholders as well as the shareholders any potential human and environmental abuses that may occur in the life of the operation. The should take into account the labour issues, while setting employing rules and any environmental pollution that is inevitable and best to compensate the people involved. 4.2. CORPORATE ACCOUNTABILITY Corporate accountability is all about the TNCs being held accountable for the actions the take especial subsidiaries of International companies abroad in developing countries. For example, KAIROS is concerned about the growing pattern of Canadian extractive companies, whose international activities are having a negative impact on the environment and human rights, including the rights of Indigenous peoples.   KAIROS advocates for binding legislation to hold corporations accountable in Canada for abuses committed internationally. 5. RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION TNCs should, within the framework of both national and international laws, in the communities in which they operate, take a proper account of the need to protect the environment and public health and generally to carry out their practices in a manner contributing to sustainable development. Most importantly, enterprises should: 1. Inaugurate and maintain a system or a scheme of environmental administrative body appropriate to the company. 2. Determine, the foreseeable environmental, health, and safety-related impacts related with the projects of the company over their full life cycle. Where these proposed activities and practices could have noticeable environmental, health, or safety impacts, the company should prepare a proper environmental impact assessment. 3. Support plans for preventing and mitigating environmental and health problems from their operations and to maintain systems for immediate reporting to the competent authorities. 4. To incorporate human right into the company policy and have a strong system for reporting abuses. 5. The company should not take part in local violence and neither should they keep silent when such violence occurs in their area of operation or because of their operation. 6. The company should contribute to the development of environmentally meaningful and economically efficient public policy.   BIBLIOGRAPHY SECONDARY SOURCE BOOKS Boeger, N., Perspectives on Corporate Social Responsibility(Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, United Kingdom, 2008). Mullerat, R., International Corporate Social Responsibility: The Role of Corporations in the Economic Order of the 21st Century (Kluwer Law International, BV, the Netherlands, 2010). Sullivan, R., Business and Human Rights: Delimmas and Solutions (Greenleaf Publishing Limited, United Kingdom, 2003). ARTICLES Adeola,O.F., Environmental Injustice and Human Rights Abuse: The State MNCs and Repression of Amnesty Groups in the World System. Human Ecology Review, Vol.8, No.1, 2009. International Council on Human Rights Policy, Beyond Voluntarism Human Rights and the Developing International Legal Obligations of Concern (February 2002) Tripartite Declaration of Principles Concerning Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy-International Labour Organisation. November 2000 OTHERS INTERNET Australian Human Rights Commission, Good Practice, Good Business 2009, at human rights .gov.au/human_rights/corporate_social_responsibility (last visited on July 9, 2011) Corporate accountability news, at kairoscanada.org/en/sustainability/corporate-accountability/ OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises 2008, at oecd.org/publishing /corrigenda (last visited on July 9, 2011).

Friday, November 22, 2019

Economics _ Whither the Dollar Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Economics _ Whither the Dollar - Essay Example Both see the necessity for international cooperation in determining currency exchange rates under appropriate circumstances and both provide the ability to alter exchange rates under certain circumstances. However, they also recognize the destructive aftermath of freely flexible exchanges on international trade and economic relations generally, and their chief purpose is to create and maintain a system of stable exchange rates. And yet, the Keynes’ system had some radical ideas that went completely contrary to White's conservative plan. Unlike White's theory, where member-countries would deposit their currencies, and together with the government fund then provide the currencies needed by each country for settling its international account, the Keynes’ plan provides an international clearing, where no funds are deposited. Instead, international payment would be effected by debiting the paying country and crediting the receiving country on the books of the union. (The Key nes’ and White Plans) Keynes proposed the establishment of: an International Clearing Union, based on international bank money, called (let us say) bancor , ?xed (but not unalterably) in terms of gold and accepted as the equivalent of gold by the British Commonwealth and the United States and all members of the Union for the purpose of settling international balances. (Keynes, 1980, p.121) The basic idea is simple. Countries would have accounts that would play the same role as reserves, (mainly gold in the early 20th century) and dollars or other foreign exchange currencies. With the account at the International Clearing Union countries do not have to shore up these reserves. They are free to take a loan from the International Clearing Union in times of need and lend if they export more than they import. The de?ation bias caused by trapped reserves, which cannot turn into meaningful demand, would disappear. To prevent accumulation credits or debits Keynes also suggested some measures so in the long run the system self-balance itself. The outcome of the negotiations was the new Bratton Woods system. This system incorporated points, where both plans agreed. Yet, because of the USA's greater negotiating strength, the final decisions of the new system were closer to the conservative plans of Harry Dexter White. According to US economist Brad DeLong, on almost every point where Keynes’ ideas were canceled by the Americans, he was later proved correct by events of history. The Primary Real Causes of the Financial Crisis of 2008 According to the article â€Å"Whither the Dollar† by Katherine Sciacchitano, there are a few reasons and events, which triggered the beginning stages of the financial crisis of 2008. The first is the elimination of capital control. This deepened economic stability in many ways: - It made it easier for capital to search for the lowest possible wages; - It increased the political power of capital by enabling it to â€Å"v ote with its feet† - It fed asset bubbles, increased financial speculation and exchange rate bounce. This increased unregulated capital mobility and speculation weakened the real economy, further exhausted global demand and increased economic instability. As we can see from history, from the eighties on up in countries all around the world an economic crises have occurred about every five years. Another reason of the 2008

Wednesday, November 20, 2019

Theology Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Theology - Assignment Example By praying, we seek God’s forgiveness of our sins and we in turn forgive others. This way, our human suffering, which is normally as a result of confining ourselves to our areas of operation, is reduced and we remain focused and hoping for the kingdom of God (Gibbs et al. 131). 3. According to Fischer and Hart, How does Jesus resolve the problem of suffering and evil? Briefly explain each of the four elements in his response. How does this response help us to understand what a Christian response to one who has AIDS might be? When we are suffering, Jesus is always on our side to guide us on how to respond to the evil and suffering. Through Jesus, God intervenes in our circumstances and walks with us, showing us what to do at those moments when we feel weak. In regard to solving the problem of evil and suffering, there are four elements involved, which are (Fischer & Hart 121): (1). Jesus forgives us our sins and calls people to get converted. He is merciful enough and is always ready to forgive everyone who seeks his mercy. He forgives us our sins and converts us to be among his chosen ones. Based on the above four elements, a Christian suffering from AIDS will get encouragement to fight the AIDS knowing that even Christ Jesus himself suffered so much. The Christian will have the assurance that the suffering is just for a short time while on this earth, and then inherit the eternal kingdom in the life after. According to Bonhoeffera, suffering can destroy the ability to respond to God, something which he considered as a temptation, a temptation which to some extent may result from despair driving someone into committing suicide. Bonhoeffera however gives us hope from suffering by assuring us that the compassion of Christ is always with us and is enough to rescue a person who is tempted (Blackburn 178). Bonhoeffera noted that the suffering of Christ Jesus on the cross brought people closer to the Christian faith. The death of Christ meant to bring us

Monday, November 18, 2019

Why might Livingstone and Lunts approach to infotainment be criticized Essay

Why might Livingstone and Lunts approach to infotainment be criticized from Habermas perspective on the public sphere - Essay Example These realizations led to the postulations that communication had two dimensions with one dimension covering the overall communication of human beings and the other dimension covering the characteristics of communications that result from dynamics that influence communication at a given time and space (Outhwaite 2006, p.98). Therefore, communication is not a new concept. The current approaches to communication involve the works of Jurgen Habermas who approached communication using post-modernism and argued from a philosophical perspective. Herbamas concept of communication is that it should involve a deliberate action between the communicating parties to create harmony through a process known as rationalization. In essence, communication involves actors who take it upon themselves to create harmony and to solve problems through the process of communication. In essence, communication seized to be just an avenue for people to exchange ideas but an active tool that can be used to solve the problems outlined by the English Philosopher Thomas Hobbes (Outhwaite, Habermas: a critical introduction 2009, p.70). Habermas outlines that communicative action is not just communication but that it uses the tools of communication (Outhwaite, Habermas: a critical introduction, 2009). In essence, Habermas implies that for communicative action to take place both parti es have to be active participants. A central postulation to Habermas analysis of communication is that communication has to be rational. The concept of rationality is not new in the field of philosopher and sociology dating back from the times of philosophers like Plato and Rene Descartes. Although rationality is also still surrounded by controversy in terms of definition, the paper will approach rationality as concerning sound mind and reasoning. Communication in the contemporary world has taken a dynamic dimension beginning with the mass production of print media and cable television which has been the major

Saturday, November 16, 2019

The Conclusion Recommendations Construction Essay

The Conclusion Recommendations Construction Essay From the unstructured interview it appears that Anthony is somewhat frustrated with the lack of support for timber frame housing. Anthony has successfully constructed two five-storey apartment blocks of timber frame without any problems, yet the public are concerned about two storey timber structures. More needs to be done to market the benefits of timber frame housing and to educate the public. Although Anthony suggests that timber frame construction will become more popular in the future due to new building regulations requiring increased thermal performance and the Code for Sustainable Homes, it cannot be expected to happen overnight. Despite the governments drive for sustainable developments and using renewable construction materials, such as timber, their support to the timber industry is limited. However, the timber industry cannot wait any longer in the hope that the government will help to persuade the public to construct their homes of timber frame. The timber industry need to take the initiative and invest in marketing techniques that are beneficial to the industry. The government, designers, builders and developers all have a major part to play in raising the awareness of timber frame construction. Over three-quarters of Anthonys work is in the public sector. With government funding reducing year on year and limited profits to be made from public housing Anthony is dependent on private houses. He is keen to do more bespoke timber frame houses but until public perception changes he knows bespoke timber frame houses are sparse. 8.0 conclusion Recommendations 8.1 Introduction After carrying out the primary and secondary research, a thorough understanding of timber frame construction has been developed. It is felt that all requirements set out in the aims and objectives have been achieved. The literature review discussed in detail the current state of timber frame construction in the United Kingdom and the important role it has in the future of the construction industry. The various components, design parameters and regulations of timber frame construction were discussed in detail. Timber frame was compared against traditional masonry in many aspects throughout the research. The case studies demonstrated how flexible timber frame design and construction can be. The interview and questionnaires highlighted the many factors that are restraining timber frame construction in Northern Ireland and what can be done to help it progress. 8.2 Conclusion Traditionally, houses in the UK and Ireland are constructed of brick and mortar, and timber frame is seen as an alternative method of construction. There are many barriers preventing timber frame from progressing from an alternative method of construction into a mainstream competitor of traditional masonry. In the housing sector, it appears timber frame construction is suffering due to the publics negative perception. As was shown in the questionnaire, although a large number of the public recognise the benefits of timber frame construction they are still wary of it and the majority would prefer to build their own homes using traditional masonry. The questionnaire also highlighted the problems the public perceived timber frame construction to have, such as structural instability, poor fire resistance, poor value on the property and limited design. Timber frame construction is the most popular form of construction used throughout the world, but here in Northern Ireland it is seen as cheap and fragile and as a result people do not rate it on the same level as traditional masonry. This investigation has proven all the perceived problems to be untrue and established there is a general lack of understanding, knowledge and widespread availability of information, which has led to the public resisting change from traditional forms of construction. The construction industry is traditionally conservative towards new methods of construction hence many developers and contractors believe it to be a substantial risk to incorporate timber frame construction into their private housing schemes. Housing associations are keen to use timber frame as they want to achieve level 3 of the Code for Sustainable Homes with minimal costs while benefitting from the accuracy and minimal waste that prefabrication offers. Private developers will not use timber frame construction until they are certain the public are prepared to purchase a timber frame home as they do not want to devalue their site. A perceived problem within the industry was the unfamiliarity of timber frame from design through to construction. There is some unease within the industry regarding timber frame construction, whilst some are accepting it; others are oblivious to its existence. The construction industry, as a whole, need to start to familiarise themselves with timber frame design, timber frame detailing and timber frame construction. For timber frame construction to develop, its critical that the industry professionals accept timber frame construction and pass the benefits onto clients. Although the case studies demonstrated that timber frame is a versatile method of construction, until public and industry appreciation of the benefits of timber frame increases, masonry construction will remain the dominant form of construction within the UK. It is important that the benefits of timber frame construction are well demonstrated in order to gain acceptance within the industry and the general public. Upon examination of the information collected during the course of this investigation, it appears that timber frame construction has the ability to be used in the construction of complex bespoke homes. Timber frame construction can offer the public and the industry many benefits, however, the research indicates that until timber frame perception changes, it will struggle to impact Northern Ireland in a way that it potentially could. With new building regulations, due to be released in the second half of 2010, a further increase in regulations due in 2013, zero carbon homes in 2016 and the introduction of The Code for Sustainable Homes; it is likely timber frame will grow in popularity due to its thermal ability and environmentally friendly nature. However, public and industry awareness need to increase before the significance of timber frame construction can be fully appreciated. 8.3 Limitations The questionnaires had to be short and concise, and not overly technical to keep the interest of the respondent. This could have resulted in insufficient data being collected. Although a total of sixty questionnaires were distributed in the North West, only forty were returned. To achieve a broader spectrum of results more questionnaires could have been handed out and posted to further regions of the province, such as Belfast. The single interview conducted was very beneficial in getting a timber frame manufacturers view on different aspects of the industry. Although arrangements were in place to interview another two timber frame manufacturers, the interviews never materialised. It would have been beneficial to conduct further interviews to gather a wider range of views. The two case studies provided an insight into two opposing timber frame structures. It would have been constructive to investigate a second bespoke house to gain a further insight into the methods used to construct bespoke timber frame homes. 8.4 Recommendations When carrying out research for this investigation the public, and some professions within the construction industry, appeared to have a negative perception of timber frame construction. A further area that could be investigated is how these negative perceptions can be changed. Further research could be undertaken into marketing campaigns to increase awareness of timber frame construction. Investigate how advertising and promotion could be used to educate people on the benefits of timber frame construction and see if government support is required. Another area of further research could be industrial training. There is a lack of knowledge within the industry about timber frame design and detailing. An investigation into how further timber training is required within the industry. Possibly there are not enough courses and support available, or maybe there is no government funding therefore no incentive for employers to send their workforce. Timber frame design and detailing could also be looked at in university courses. Napier are offering timber engineering degrees, this is possibly the way of the future.

Wednesday, November 13, 2019

The Nursing Career :: Co-op Placement Nursing Career Work

The Nursing Career   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I was in a hospital for my co-op placement, I chose this because I was considering nursing as my chosen career path. For this reason, I have researched the nursing career. I have spent many hours in this setting and feel that I have a pretty good understanding as to what goes on day to day.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Before choosing to become a nurse, one must first examine themselves and look to see if they have the right qualities for this demanding job. Some qualities are such; caring, compassion, a strong desire and willingness to help those in need, patience, honesty and above all, good health. You need strength for such duties as lifting patients to and from bathroom facilities.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In order to become a licensed nurse, one could take a three year course at a college, or a four year program at a university. Even though the starting salary and job requirements are the same whether a graduate from college or a university, with a degree one is able to further their placement and a possible pay increase is more likely. There has, and continues to be, a very high demand for nurses all over the world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After talking with an actual nurse I was able to see more closely the actual duties of this job. The work hours are 40 hour weeks. There are many shift hours there as well. Working in a hospital requires 24 hour responsibilities, so many of the nurses may have to rotate to afternoon, midnight or weekend shifts. Duties of the job are varied, depending on the area of the hospital you work in. In outpatient area, the nurse assists with obtaining pre-operative information, takes vital signs (blood pressure, pulse, temperature) and obtains patient?s medical history. The nurse then has to prepare the equipment for procedures to be done, and may have to assist the doctor with the procedure. Afterwards,the nurse assesses the patient taking blood pressure, pulse, etc. until the patient is stable enough to be discharged home.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On the floor the nurse has various duties. She takes reports from the previous shifts, assesses patients, gives medication, performs procedures give treatments and sees the patients with the doctors.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  All hospitals in Windsor are unionized. The nurses hired are given a 90 day trial period and after that time the nurse is approaching to join the union. Salaries are paid hourly, starting at around 20 dollars an hour and ranging to 26 per hour.

Monday, November 11, 2019

Ideas that Shaped the Constitution

I will discuss 3 main ideas regarding the Federalist Papers. The Federalist Papers wanted to protect the people as a whole, not Just individuals. Before the U. S. Constitution was formed, the leaders believed that a weak central government wouldn't have enough power to protect the rights of individual people. After the U. S. Constitution was created, the document called for a strong central government, one that would have power over the state governments and provide a unified authority on legislating, nforcing and judging laws. What was the purpose of the Federalist Papers?The overall purpose of the Federalist Papers was to convince the people that a stronger centralized government would be more protective ot their rights. The Federalist papers were written to convince people to ratify the Constitution The papers discussed the unequivocal experience of the Incompetence of the federal government and the need for a stronger central government. They wanted the public to support the cons titution and get involved. Many leaders wanted a entralized government because they feared If the power remained In the states It would eventually tear the government apart.States fought with each other over power and they wanted the power to be centralized not at the states level. The States had more power than the government. Many far-sighted leaders realized that the self-interests of the states would eventually tear the union apart. and that the Articles of Confederation provided no legal or political means to stop it. States quarreled with one another over land claims, commerce regulations, and frequently rected imposts against neighboring states.Although strictly forbidden by the Articles, states established relations and treaties with foreign nations and refused to send much needed tax money to congress. Due to the difficult amendment process, attempts to endow congress with greater authority to tax and to regulate commerce could be stopped by the refusal of a single state. W ho was the attended audience? The original purpose ot the Federalist Papers was to elect Pro-constitution delegates to the New York state ratification convention.The proposed audience was the erchants of New York City, whose support was vital if the upstate Antifederalists were to be overpowered. This ettort ultimately tailed. Only nineteen Federalists were elected from New York City, while forty-six Antifederalists were elected from upstate, led by Governor George Clinton. The papers were printed In only a dozen papers Ideas tha mccantsr uC outs10e 0T New York, ana tnelr Innuence on tne overall vote was n the Articles of Confederation fail? The articles of confederation were written to oversee the 13 origin breaking away from Great Britain in 1776.The articles of confeder many reasons. The main reason was that the states had too much federal government weak. There was no one person in charge, the executive branch. Congress didn't have any power; decisions had all 13 states. Drafted during the years 1776 and 1777, while the c fighting for independence, the Articles of Confederation created a government with most of the governmental powers retained by th Articles provided no separation of branches. Congress, the legisla branch of government. When laws were presented, they required Congress voted as states not as individuals.The Articles of Confe written to govern the interaction of the thirteen original states aft independence from Great Britain in 1776. They proved to be ineff US Constitution was adopted to replace the Articles of Confederati an active government is critical to the protection of individual righ government under the Articles of Confederation was unable to eff individual rights because it did not act directly upon the people, a authority to enforce its laws. The Constitution requires that the pe are needed to ratify the document and decide whether they will t the framers or not.

Saturday, November 9, 2019

Why Cigarettes Should Be Banned essays

Why Cigarettes Should Be Banned essays Despite decades of the consumer warnings of unpleasant and early deaths, cigarettes have not been banned and made illegal. The cigarette industry has had numerous claims filed against it over health issues, the prices of the products,the ingredients used, and where the cigarettes are produced. The 1982 Surgeon General's Report stated, "Cigarette smoking is the major single cause of cancer mortality in the United States (American Cancer Society). According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention or CDC, 46.2 million US adults were current smokers in 2001 (American Cancer Society), after the better part of a century spent exposed to cigarette warnings and anti-smoking campaigns. In the state of New Jersey, it is illegal for anyone under 19 to buy tobacco products. Smoking in public, however, is not a crime, no matter how young the lighted-cigarette holder, as long as it does not take place in areas off-limits to smoking like restaurants, bars, and certain buildings (La Gorce). By establishing these off-limit areas, the state hopes to cut down the amount of smokers within workplaces and in other public places. By doing this, New Jersey is doing their best to cut down on smoking, and they also did so by increasing the age to nineteen. Even so, that does not mean cigarettes will not be sold to consumers. Bans on smoking in public and in workplaces can sharply reduce the number of heart attacks among both smokers and nonsmokers, according to a report issued by the Institute of Medicine. Some also disagree with raising the age like Michael Rispoli who wrote, Raising legal age to smoke is just absurd. The report provides support for the anti-smoking laws tha t are in effect in 21 states. and the District of Columbia plans on putting forth efforts to pass such laws elsewhere (Gorce). The effects of smoking hurt the younger generation who is exposed to it. An investigation was created to figure out how ni...

Wednesday, November 6, 2019

Escaped the Shells essays

Escaped the Shells essays Erich Maria Remarques All Quiet on the Western Front is famous as one of the most powerful war stories of all time. It is a story, not of nations, but of men who, even though they may have escaped the shells, were destroyed by the war. The novel centers on Paul Baumer and his classmates, through whom Remarque depicts a generation of men that enlist for their idealized notions of war, but quickly degenerate into "weary, broken, burnt out, rootless [men] without hope. Through Pauls eyes, Remarque shows the inhumanity in this, mans first war, called for by no higher entity or cause. Paul and his generation were denied a transition between childhood and adulthood and upon entering the war at such a young age, they gained their identity as soldiers and once the war is over, their identity is all they have to live on. Baumer and his classmates enter the war as innocents; coming fresh from school, they knew nothing outside of their boyish hopes and idealizations. Setting out on the threshold of their adult lives, these soldiers knew war to be an opportunity for personal and national greatness, to be somebody and stand up for what they believe in. Labeled the Iron Youth these young Germans faced an explosive reality of meaningless death, pain, and rapid maturity into a world being reborn. We were eighteen and had begun to love life and the world; and we had to shoot it to pieces. The first bomb, the first explosion, burst in our hearts. We are cut off from activity, from striving, from progress. We believe in such things no longer, we believe in the war (p88). Remarque quickly establishes the emotional disconnection felt by the soldiers brought on by their forced stage of rapid maturity. While his friend Kantorek is inches away from death, Paul and his friends, although grieved, eagerly debate the custody of Kantoreks boots with the orderly. ...

Monday, November 4, 2019

Product Packaging Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Product Packaging - Essay Example The combination of paper and plastic to package ice cream is relatively desirable, economical and convenient. The types of ice cream intended to market are creams, cones and bars. The ice cream categories include; frozen yogurt, dessert toppings, ice cream and novelties. Similarly, the sizes of the ice cream are; 3.5 oz for creams, 5.0 oz for ice cream bars and 4.5 oz for ice cream cones. These packaging materials can conform to any size and shape (Albert 16). In addition, it is essential to ensure that the packaging criteria favor all serving size options such as; retail, pints, scrounds, family and single consumers. According to the laws and regulations governing labeling in France, the labels on the food products must be visible, easy to understand, not edible and easy to see. Furthermore, the list of ingredients must be shown, the original place of the product and the storage condition. Similarly, the expiry date must be clearly indicated, and the percentage content of alcohol in the ice cream should be included. Ice cream with alcoholic content should indicate a warning (Castellani 30). In this regard, it should not be sold to persons below the age of 18, according to the minimum age as illustrated by the French law on alcohol. Various companies in France have different packaging techniques. For example, Unilever and Ben & Jerrys have to deep-frozen the ice cream after production and it takes the shape of the equipment used to freeze (Baker 24). The ice cream of this company is differentiated from those of its competitors since the company uses packaging materials that conform to different shapes and

Saturday, November 2, 2019

Social Science Studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Social Science Studies - Essay Example This has been one of the most profound scientific investigations of man kind. The search for the answers to life have eluded man for decades, although in recent years many evolutionists, researchers, religious leaders, and other renowned historians claim that they are closer than ever to gaining the answers to the questions that have been sought after for centuries. Much of this is based on the phenomenon of religion and what it means to people in society. If anything, religion gives people something steadfast to believe in, and brings a source of inspiration to many lives. Without this specific icon of belief there are many that claim life would be blank and meaningless because religion is a part of the natural history of man. It is also claimed that the concept of religion was developed to exert social control over various groups in society. This is stated because it is known that the body of religion leads to many human emotions and activities. Some of these being very profound emotional states such as fear, wonder, reverence, gratitude, love, prayer, worship, and ultimate sacrifice (Swatos 2006). There is no doubt that those who follow a religious faith turned towards their religion as a guidance to help them in their lives. Also, whether people are going through good times or bad, they are found to worship what they believe in and it dictates many aspects of their life to them, basically in a sense of understanding what is right and wrong. Furthermore, as has been mentioned, many moral decisions are based around the essence of religion. For Christians, they realize that committing an act such as murder might condemn them to hell so by following the structure of their religious teachings they would ref rain themselves from such an act regardless of what might have lead to the contemplation of it to begin with. So it can be seen that another possibility for the science of religion lies in the concept of morals in human kind (Cline 2006). To delve a little deeper into the meaning in behind religion it is found that a great deal of people who are religious turn to their beliefs for many answers. They do believe that what they worship will provide them with the answers that they seek. At times this is very true and others it is not, but it gives purpose to many peoples lives. As it has been stated, those who follow a religious stature would not fully grasp their purpose in life or feel as whole without its presence. In this regard many could claim that it developed to bring a sense of peace to the human race so that they would feel more at ease in times of troubles and strife. It is feasible to see how the scientific context for religion has developed through the ages. The search for how human kind developed lead to the strong need of faith to try and interpret and understand for many, many people throughout the world. Though many religious ideas differ they all hold certain similarities as well. For whatever the reason it has become a very profound state of being in the world for many different ethnicities and cultural groups. Education Education in society has a variety of reasons for developing and playing a big part in the social life of all people. Without the educational system societies all